4 For Pham Van Ba’s recollection and the DK statement from 1980, see Kiernan, HPP, p. 123; and Khieu Thirith’s complaint in 1981 in Becker, When the War Was Over, p. 91. See also Thirith’s interview with Becker (October 1980), Echols Collection, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, N.Y., which mentions “Saloth Sar’s sad experiences with the Viet Minh,” and the confession of Meas Mon (Keo Samnang), which tells of Mon’s participation in 1953-1955 in a military unit on the border that was “half Vietnamese and half Khmer.” (All confessions are in the Tuol Sleng Archives, Phnom Penh.)

5 Stephen Heder’s manuscript interview with Chea Soth (1981); and Kiernan, HPP, p. 60. Chea Soth survived the Pol Pot period and became a minister in the PRK. In 1953 Tou Samouth held several military and political titles including chief of the territorial organization, assistant chief of the party cadre committee, and chief of the Issarak Front (see SHAT Archives, 10H 5613).

6 In his interview with Steve Heder, Mey Mann said that “Grandfather Tou established residence in a house in Tuol Svay Prey on a piece of land purchased by Saloth Sar.” This part of the capital, where Saloth Sar taught school, later became infamous as the site of Democratic Kampuchea’s interrogation and extermination center known at Tuol Sleng.

7 Vorn Vet’s confession (typed version), p. 3, states that Saloth Sar brought Thuok into the Cambodian Communist party at the end of 1954.

8 Ibid.; Kiernan, HPP, pp. 154ff. Sien An, Rath Samoeun, and Yun Soeurn were purged under Democratic Kampuchea. See also Carlyle Thayer, War by Other Means (Sydney, 1989), pp. 16-17. Nuon Chea’s draft history of the Communist party of Kampuchea, prepared in 1997 (hereafter “History”) mentions a figure of 1,500-2,000 evacuees. I am grateful to Nate Thayer for a copy of this document, and to David Ashley for a translation.

9 From author’s interview with Thiounn Mumm (May 1988). Chheam Van, Mumm’s brother-in-law, recalled meeting Saloth Sar at this time and discussing politics. On at least one occasion, Saloth Sar used the name “Pol” (or “Paul”) in France (author’s interview with Keng Vannsak, May 1987).

10 See Kiernan, HPP, pp. 156ff.; author’s interview with Thiounn Mumm; and Non Suon’s confession (September 1976). Mumm met Keo Meas in East Berlin in 1951. The Pracheachon Group was founded in early 1955. U.S. Embassy Phnom Penh, Telegram 57, February 3, 1955, refers to new directorate of Democrats as a “left-wing element strongly permeated by Communist taint.”

11 From author’s interview with Chhay Yat (February 1990). Yat claimed that at this time Saloth Sar was a “humanitarian” rather than a hard-line Communist.

12 From author’s interviews with Keng Vannsak, Thonn Ouk, Sim Var, and Thiounn Mumm. See also Non Suon’s confession; and Philippe Preschez, Essai sur le democratie an Cambodge (Paris, 1961), pp. 57ff.

13 See Khemara, December 22, 1954 (Michael Vickery’s notes).

14 See Neak Cheat Niyum (The Nationalist), October 18, 1955—a month after the election (Michael Vickery’s translation).