The more fundamental criticism: This idea, and that of the settling point, are in ibid.

“black hole”: Interview, Donald Novin.

“In human beings and animals…”: Richter 1976:224.

Experimental observations on hunger, thirst, and palatability: Ibid. (“As a result…,” 198).430 “Rats will make every…”: Ibid.:210. “Food acceptance and the urge…”: Adolph 1947:122. Footnote. Rolls and Barnett 2000.

“phenomenal…”: Bellisle et al. 2003. “incredibly brilliant”: Interview, Stephen Woods. Le Magnen’s life and career: Le Magnen 2001.

Rats ate discrete meals: See Le Magnen 1976. See also Le Magnen 1971, his seminal paper on the physiological psychology of hunger.

Two fundamental observations: Le Magnen 1971:213–19. “quantitative deficiencies…”: Adolph 1947:122.

“All increase or decrease…”: Le Magnen 1971:220.

While they’re sleeping: Ibid.

“The restitution…”: Ibid.:238. “spare”: Ibid.:243.

“indirect and passive consequences…”: Le Magnen 1981:315.

Insulin is the driver: Le Magnen 1976:99–100.

Several variations of the hypothesis: Le Magnen 1984; Toates and Booth 1974; Friedman and Stricker 1976.

Three propositions: Friedman and Stricker 1976 (“adequate for them…,” 413).

The simplest possible explanation: Ibid. (“Hunger appears,” 424). “The primitive goal”: Hoebel and Hernandez 1993:43.

We’re not much more complicated than insects: Hoebel and Hernandez 1993; Lepkovsky 1973. “feeding behavior removes…”: Stricker 1978.

“Energy metabolism”: Friedman and Stricker 1976:413.

“harmony of tissue metabolisms”: Ibid.:413.

What the body regulates: Le Magnen 1984.

Le Magnen demonstrated this: Le Magnen 1981.

“It is not a paradox…”: Le Magnen 1984:517.

Food availability most important to fertility: Bronson 1988:88. Body fat, as commonly believed: Frisch and McArthur 1974. Availability of metabolic fuels: Schneider and Wade 1989 and Wade and Schneider 1992.

Wade and Schneider explained: Wade and Schneider 1992:246–47.

Nicotine as weight-loss drug: Filozof et al. 2004.

Excess calories not enough to explain weight gain: Perkins 1993. Rodin reported: Rodin 1987. Physical activity: Perkins 1993.

Nicotine and LPL: Chajek-Shaul et al. 1990; Perkins 1993; Sztalryd et al. 1996; Carney and Goldberg 1984. Fenfluramine and LPL: Deshaies et al. 1994.

The adjustable regulator: See Mrosovsky 1985:45–46.

Woods and Porte observed: Woods and Porte 1976:274. Seasonal weight variations in hibernators: Le Magnen 1988: Florant et al. 1985.

Seasonal variations in insulin levels: Fahlen et al. 1971; Behall et al. 1984. In LPL activity: Donahoo et al. 2000. Spring and fall weight changes: See, for instance, Andersson and Rossner 1992.

“arises mainly from human…”: Ramirez et al. 1989.

Le Magnen first noted: See Le Magnen 2001. “It is often said…”: Pavlov 1955:109.

Rats given the choice: Le Magnen 1978. For similar experiments done by Anthony Sclafani, see Sclafani and Nissenbaum 1988.

“In evolution…”: Quoted in Goleman 1989.

First wave of insulin secretion: Simpson et al. 1968. “The pancreas has no idea…”: Interview, Gerold Grodsky.

“the metabolic background…”: Le Magnen 1985:59. “In man…”: Le Magnen 1978.

Cephalic reflexes: Pavlov 1955:245–70. Nicolaidis demonstrated: Nicolaidis 1969 (“pre-adaptive”); interview, Stylianos Nicolaidis. Woods and his colleagues: Woods et al. 1977. “essentially anything…”: Interview, Mark Friedman.

Idea suggested by Powley: Powley 1977 (“self-perpetuating…” “Rather than secreting…,” 102).444 Rodin reported: Rodin 1980 (“major candidate…,” 232). “A feedback loop…”: Rodin 1985:14.

“hunger late in the day”: Sims and Danforth 1974. “developed marked anorexia”: Goldman et al. 1976:166. Calories in popcorn and cheese: USDA n.d. Footnote. Hurley and Liebman 2003.

“high levels of insulin…”: Cahill 1971:785.

Subjects inevitably fall off the diet: See, for instance, Anon. 1973; Select Committee 1977b:9. Described by Kemp: Kemp 1963.

Nucleus accumbens: Hoebel et al. 1999 (“is excessively activated…,” 559).