“Hard living…retards…”: Darwin 2004:56. “Fertility is linked…,” “partitioning and utilization…,” and “reciprocal, redundant…”: Wade and Schneider 1992:235–36.

Newburgh still promoting his hypothesis: Newburgh 1948. “an excuse for avoidance…”: Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:42.

“being ruthless in self-criticism…”: Krebs 1967.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO:
THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS, II: INSULIN

Epigraphs. “Every woman knows…”: Passmore and Swindells 1963:331. “The fact that insulin increases…”: Haist and Best 1966:1350.

Newburgh rejected “endocrine abnormality”: Newburgh, 1929 lecture, in Newburgh and Johnston 1930a. “theories that attributed obesity…”: Anon. 1955b.

Mayer pointed out: Mayer 1968:67–68.

Von Noorden suggested: Von Noorden, 1907c:61–62.

As early as 1923: Rony 1940:228.

Falta argued in pre-insulin era: Falta 1923:583–84. (“A functionally intact pancreas is necessary for fattening,” is more commonly translated as “For fattening, therefore, is necessary a functionally intact pancreas.”) Falta argued after insulin discovered: Rony 1940:289.

Clinicians in Europe using insulin: Grafe 1933:75–76. “rich in carbohydrates…”: Rony 1940:289–90. Insulin for depression and schizophrenia: See Rinkel and Himwich 1959. “all the patients gained weight”: Nasar 1998:293. “drastic increase”: Butscher 2003: 122. The Bell Jar: Plath 1996 (twenty pounds, 237; “fatter and fatter,” 192).

Insulin therapy for diabetics: Jacobson et al. 1994:444; Carlson and Campbell 1993. Rosenzweig portrayed: Rosenzweig 1994:483–84. Footnote. Ibid.

“an excellent fattening substance”: Grafe 1933:75–76. Newburgh insisted: Newburgh 1942:1082–83. See also Conn 1944.

Rony reviewed: Rony 1940:115.

Clinical investigators would state: Rynearson and Gastineau 1949:34–35. See also Jolliffe 1963:15.

McGarry on Minkowski: McGarry 1992.

“garbage can”: Interview, Bernard Jeanrenaud.

“Until recently…”: Bruch 1957:148. “amazing how little…”: Bruch 1973:6.

“the time-honored assumption…”: Bruch 1957:148. The first phase: See Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:452–53 (“no marked quantity…” “abundant”).

Schoenheimer’s life and work: Clarke 1941. With David Rittenberg: See Schoenheimer 1961.

Their discoveries: Schoenheimer 1961 (“indistinguishable…,” 56). Wertheimer’s seminal review: Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948 (“Mobilization and deposition,” “The ‘classical theory…,’” “the lowering of the fat…,” 454). Footnote. Renold and Cahill 1965a:1–3.

“a factor acting directly…”: Wertheimer and Shapiro 1948:454.

Krebs cycle: Krebs 1981 (“the main energy source…” “All three major…,” 114).

“The high degree of metabolic…”: Bruch 1957:155–56.

Path of events to obesity: Ibid. (“the big question…,” 156; “Since it is now…,” 158).

“the fat streams…”: Magnus-Levy 1907:164. “small component…”: Benedict 1915. Nutritionists insisted: Cahill and Owen 1968; Newsholme and Start 1973: 212–13.

The 1956 papers: Dole 1956; Gordon and Cherkes 1956 (“relation to the need” “the anticipated need”); Laurell 1956.

APS Handbook: Renold and Cahill 1965. 50to 70 percent: Fritz 1961. “Adipose tissue is no longer…”: Renold et al. 1965. An excellent review of the regulation of fat metabolism and adipose tissue is Newsholme and Start 1973:195–246.

“This lipogenesis is regulated…”: Wertheimer 1965:6. Footnote. Hollifield and Parson 1965.

Second critical point: See Newsholme and Start 1973:197–98.

“a ceaseless stream…”: Brodie et al. 1965:584.

half the triglycerides not used for fuel: Reshef et al. 2003. “The storage of triglyceride fat…”: Gordon 1969:329–30.

Glycerol phosphate: For a review of the role of this molecule, the triglyceride/fatty-acid cycle, and the glucose/fatty acid cycle, see Newsholme and Start 1973:214–34. “so that they are unable…”: Gordon 1970:242.

Randle cycle: Randle et al. 1963 is Randle’s seminal paper on the glucose/fatty acid cycle.

“even in trace amounts…”: Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960:483.

“the principal regulator…” and “only the negative…”: Berson and Yalow 1965:561.

Effects of other hormones suppressed by insulin: Gordon 1970; Fritz 1961. Anything that increases insulin: Berson and Yalow 1965. The list of hormones that promote fat mobilization and accumulation is from Steinberg and Vaughn 1965.