No crop has had such a formative influence on society. The production of sugar demands huge amounts of labor, first supplied by African slaves, then indentured workers, and then free laborers. The industry produced multiethnic populations. Now sugar is in oversupply, and dependency is keenly felt by the populations of the cane-growing countries.

In the late eighteenth century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar produced from crops other than cane. The beet-sugar industry took off during the Napoleonic Wars when France was cut off from Caribbean sugar. Today, thirty percent of sugar is produced from beets.

Granulated sugar comes in various crystal sizes from coarse-grained sugars, such as sanding sugar (also called “pearl sugar,” “decorating sugar,” nibbed sugar, or sugar nibs), which adds “sparkle” and is used to decorate pastries. Sugars for table use typically have a grain size of about 0.5 mm across. Powdered sugar, 10X sugar, confectioners’ sugar (0.060 mm), or icing sugar (0.024 mm), is produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder.

Brown sugar is produced in the later stages of refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with cane molasses syrup. The color and taste strengthen with increasing molasses content, as do the moisture-retaining properties. Thus, brown sugars tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere. Too many times I’ve banged hardened brown sugar with a hammer into pieces small enough to whirl in a food processor, trying to restore it to usable condition.

10

Vera

Double-Dipped Chocolate Peanut Butter Cookies

1 1/4 cup all-purpose flour

1/2 teaspoon baking powder

1/2 teaspoon baking soda

1/2 teaspoon salt

1/2 cup unsalted butter, softened

1/2 cup granulated sugar

1/2 cup packed light brown sugar

1/2 cup creamy or chunky peanut butter

1 egg

1 teaspoon vanilla

1 1/2 cup semisweet chocolate chips

3 teaspoons shortening, divided

1 1/2 cup milk chocolate chips

Preheat the oven to 350 degrees. Combine the flour, baking powder, baking soda, and salt in a small bowl. Beat the butter, granulated sugar, and brown sugar in a large bowl with an electric mixer at medium speed until light and fluffy. Beat in the peanut butter, egg, and vanilla. Gradually stir in the flour mixture, blending well.

Roll heaping tablespoons of dough into 1 1/2 inch balls. Place balls 2 inches apart on ungreased cookie sheets. (If the dough is too soft to roll into balls, refrigerate for 30 minutes.) Dip a fork into additional granulated sugar, then press it in criss-cross fashion onto each ball, flattening it to 1/2-inch thickness.

Bake for 12 minutes or until set. Let the cookies stand on cookie sheets 2 minutes. Remove the cookies to a wire rack; cool completely.

Melt the semisweet chocolate chips and 1 1/2 teaspoons shortening in the top of a double boiler over hot, not boiling, water. Dip one end of each cookie one-third of the way up; place on wax paper. Let stand until the chocolate is set, about 30 minutes.