“the principal regulator…” and “only the negative…”: Berson and Yalow 1965:561.

Effects of other hormones suppressed by insulin: Gordon 1970; Fritz 1961. Anything that increases insulin: Berson and Yalow 1965. The list of hormones that promote fat mobilization and accumulation is from Steinberg and Vaughn 1965.

Insulin secretion in VMH-lesioned animals: Han et al. 1965; Han 1968; Frohman et al. 1969; Han and Frohman 1970. “off the scale”: Powley 1977. Severing the vagus nerve: Hustvedt and Lovo 1972. Hypersecretion of insulin: Assimacopoulos-Jeannet and Jeanrenaud 1976. Footnote. Bray 1984.

“overwhelming”: Woods and Porte 1976:275.

“relative unavailability…”: Gordon 1964:1295.

Amount of glycerol phosphate available: Margolis and Vaughan 1962; Renold and Cahill 1965b.

“It may be stated categorically…”: Gordon et al. 1963.

“Carbohydrate is driving insulin…”: Interview, George Cahill. 393 Fructose converted more efficiently: Havel 2005:135–36.

“exquisitely sensitive”: See, for instance, Cahill and Owen 1968:112. See also Cahill et al. 1959; Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960; Zierler and Rabinowitz 1964. Even low levels of insulin: See Bray 1976a:121.

Fat cells remain sensitive: See Berson and Yalow 1965; Neel 1982; McGarry 1992.

“greatly exaggerated” insulin response: Rabinowitz and Zierler 1962 and 1961.

Diabetogenous-obesity hypothesis: Von Noorden, 1907c:61–62. “We generally accept”: Berson and Yalow 1965:554.

“great biologic variation” and “insulin-secretory responses”: Ibid.:555.

Diabetologists and endocrinologists have speculated: Berson and Yalow 1965; McGarry 1992.

Neel’s three scenarios: Neel 1982.

Investigators measure on whole-body level: Interview, Eric Ravussin. ADA rationale for carbohydrate-rich diet: See, for instance, Franz et al. 2003. Reported by Bierman and Brunzell: Brunzell et al. 1971.

Sims’s obesity studies: Bray 1972; Sims et al. 1973; Salans et al. 1974.

“mask” the diabetes: Von Noorden 1907c:61. Reproduced in animals: Maegawa et al. 1986. Brunzell refuses: Interview, John Brunzell.

“exaggerated tendency…”: Silver and Bauer 1931.

Lipoprotein lipase: For a review of how LPL regulates use of fatty acids, see, for instance, Newsholme and Leech 1983:246–99. A more recent review can be found in Merkel et al. 2002.

Orchestration of LPL activity: Arner et al. 1981; Smith 1985; Rebuffé-Scrive 1987; Arner and Eckel 1998.

LPL is where insulin and sex hormones interact: Smith 1985; Björntorp 1985. Testosterone and LPL: Rebuffé-Scrive 1987. Progesterone: Greenwood et al. 1987. Estrogen: Rebuffé-Scrive et al. 1986. Changing fat deposition with pregnancy: Lithell 1987; Greenwood et al. 1987.

Greenwood’s “gatekeeper hypothesis” and Zucker-rat studies: Greenwood et al. 1981.

LPL gatekeeper hypothesis, researchers reported: Kern et al. 1990; Eckel 2003; Arner and Eckel 1998 (“sufficiently altered”). During exercise: Kiens et al. 1989; Hardman and Herd 1998.

The open question, “habitual dietary carbohydrate…”: Yost et al. 1998.

“farinaceous and vegetable…”: Tanner 1869b:217. “Eating carbohydrates will stimulate…”: discussion period in Gracey et al. 1991:194.

Cahill gave Banting Memorial Lecture: Cahill 1971 (“overall fuel control…” “The concentration of circulating…,” 785). “carbohydrate is driving insulin…,” “a calorie is a calorie…,” and the obese as fundamentally lazy: Interviews, George Cahill.

Kipnis fed ten “grossly obese” women: Grey and Kipnis 1971.

“necessity of restricting carbohydrates”: Schettler and Schlierf 1974:394–95.

Kipnis described his findings: Interview, David Kipnis.