In the south the task to educate the downtrodden and girl children was initiated by Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitri Phule. Later, it was taken over by Ambedkar who introduced an aggressive socio-political agenda for the emancipation of untouchables. In Maharashtra, Mahadev Govind Ranade and his associates also made efforts for women’s education through a social movement called Prarthna Samaj, which supported widow remarriage while opposing child marriage. Similarly, Sheikh Abdullah was a pioneer in establishing the Female Education Association in Aligarh. Through his efforts, veiled Muslim girls came out to attend the school started by him in 1905, which is now a part of the renowned Aligarh Muslim University and a centre for Muslim girls’ education. So, it was the beginning of the twentieth century when gender issues became a focus and the meaning of equality, self respect and self-sufficiency were introduced.

Yashpal entered the world of literature during this time of great upheaval. Before he wrote his first novel, his contemporary, another renowned Hindi writer, Jainendra, wrote Sunita. The novel revolves around the protagonist Sunita who, obeying the dictates of her husband, undresses and offers herself to his best friend who is supposedly a revolutionary and is in a state of depression. Jainendra set out to create a bold image of a new Indian woman, but without a deep understanding of social realities, the end result seemed absurd. In the early fifties, another famous novel, Nadi ke Dweep, written by the acclaimed writer, Agyeya, was published. It created a storm because it presented a totally new image of the empowered modern woman. Here too the story revolves around a female protagonist, Rekha, who is quite eccentric and individualistic. She is married but offers herself to her beloved Bhuvan. Later, separated from her husband, she declines to marry her lover because she does not want to lose her independence and freedom again. She becomes averse to the role of a wife. This was yet another image of the liberated woman.

Yashpal tries to find a meaningful reading of women’s emancipation in Divya. He visits history to trace the ancient social order. The questions that arise are whether the history of human civilization is one of women’s subjugation. Are the roots of women slavery found in the history of religion and culture? With the discovery of agriculture, the primitive communalistic society started transforming into an organized social system. The growth of private property was a consequence of surplus agricultural produce. Thus emerged, on the ruins of an egalitarian society, the system of monarchy.

In the meantime, the greed for hoarding the surplus grew so much so that it demanded better methods of agriculture. Now the collective ownership of land became impossible, and the concept of private property was ultimately accepted. This new situation demanded free labour which came in the form of slaves. It was the beginning of a new chapter in history.

With these developments was born the consciousness of the difference between the sexes, and eventually the custom of pairing was established and accepted. Domestic affairs became the responsibility of women. The practice of hoarding and the system of private property gave rise to slavery. At the same time, women were given a new place and confined within the boundaries of four walls. As the feudal system became stronger, not only the land, but slaves and women also became part of the private property of men. A new caste-based society began to be formed, in which four varnas, depending on the nature of the profession, became the four castes that could not be changed. The caste or profession became hereditary. This was supported by the Upanishads, and stringent social laws were framed against slaves and women in various Samhitas. This Brahminical social order was convenient for the upper crust of the society. The Puranas, Upanishads and Samhitas defended the varna system, slavery and upper-class tyranny as absolute. This caste-based social order is what is responsible for inequality, injustice and inhuman conditions of the Sudras and subjugation of women in Hindu society.